Delta Sleep-Inducing Peptide (DSIP) is an endogenous neuropeptide that was first isolated from rabbits by Monnier and associates in 1964. It is proposed to play a role in inducing delta EEG sleep and is believed to have a diverse influence on the central nervous system. Researchers suggest that it may regulate circadian rhythm, sleeping patterns, and the endocrine system while potentially alleviating hypothermia. Additionally, DSIP is speculated to protect against oxidative stress and reduce the body’s response to acute stress.

Findings from research suggest that substance P, beta-endorphin, and cortisol levels in the hypothalamus and blood plasma may show alterations under DSIP influence. It is proposed to induce changes in other peptides that mediate the acute and long-term stress coping effect. Furthermore, DSIP is believed to regulate opioid-peptidergic systems.

 

Delta Sleep-Inducing Peptide and Sleep, Circadian Rhythm

The peptide is said to exist in both free and bound forms in the hypothalamus, limbic system, and pituitary gland. It is believed to trigger hypothalamic neural circuitry, increasing LH during sleep, and may help in cases of chronic insomnia, according to speculative research.

A study of research models of chronic insomnia was completed to determine the intermediate effect of the peptide on sleep and daytime performance. Delta Sleep-Inducing Peptide was delivered under placebo-controlled, double-blind conditions for seven successive nights.
Polysomnograms were captured for placebo baseline, beginning and end of Delta sleep-inducing peptide exposure, and one placebo post-exposure at night. The daytime psychological state and mental performance were extensively analyzed before and after 6 Delta sleep-inducing peptide influence. Each model researched IV Delta sleep-inducing peptide, and the findings reported a greater regulation in sleep cycles.

The speculated findings also propose that DSIP may mitigate instances of narcolepsy by reducing the number of sleep attacks during the day and enhancing REM sleep. DSIP was delivered to research models of narcolepsy, with results observed to encompass decreased sleep attack frequency and improved activity, alertness, and performance during the daytime. The peptide was suggested to reduce the sleep period with the enhancement of REM sleep, accentuating circadian and ultradian rhythms.

 

Delta Sleep-Inducing Peptide and Opioid Withdrawal

It is speculated that DSIP might help deal with opioid withdrawal due to its suggested agonistic activity at opioid receptors. Animal study findings have suggested that DSIP, when delivered directly into the bulbo-mesencephalon-thalamic recruiting system, may trigger slow-wave sleep, and this effect may be reversed by naloxone.

 

Pain Perception and Depressive Behavior

DSIP is also being evaluated for potential in chronic pain and/or depression research. DSIP has been suggested to exert significant reductions in pain levels and depressive states when introduced. Due to its suggested modulating effect on endogenous opioid-peptidergic systems and its impact on circadian rhythms and cortisol levels, a study was conducted on research models of migraine episodes, vasomotor headaches, chronic tinnitus, psychogenic panic attacks, and depressive states. Delta Sleep-Inducing Peptide was suggested to remarkably lower pain levels in the majority of research models and indicated a significant decrease in depressive states following exposure.

 

Disclaimer: The products mentioned are not intended for human or animal consumption. Research chemicals are intended solely for laboratory experimentation and/or in-vitro testing.  Bodily introduction of any sort is strictly prohibited by law.  All purchases are limited to licensed researchers and/or qualified professionals. All information shared in this article is for educational purposes only.

GHK-Cu peptide is a naturally prevalent copper complex first identified in plasma, and is considered to be present in fluids such as saliva and urine. Copper peptides, small protein fragments, are believed to have a high affinity for copper ions, which are critical to normal body function. GHK-Cu peptide is thought to play essential roles, including wound healing, immune cell attraction, anti-inflammatory effects, stimulation of collagen and glycosaminoglycan synthesis in skin fibroblasts, and promotion of angiogenesis.

Speculations suggest that the peptide is secreted in response to tissue injury, aiding in protecting tissues from inflammatory damage and promoting tissue remodeling and regeneration post-injury. It is theorized to play a significant role in signaling tissue remodeling, specifically in removing damaged or scarred tissue. However there may be a reduction in its concentration, speculated to contribute to increased inflammation, cancerous activity, and tissue destruction.

 

Copper Peptides Peptide Mechanism of Action

GHK-Cu peptide may influence various pathways through its peptide sequence and copper. It is suggested to attract mast cells and macrophages to the injury site, releasing proteins that stimulate tissue repair. The peptide may primarily increase collagen, elastin, proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycans, and decorin in fibroblasts. It may stimulate metalloproteases and protease inhibitors to remove damaged tissue proteins and decrease the secretion of TGF-beta from fibroblasts, potentially reducing scar formation.

The speculated mechanism proposes that GHK-Cu peptide promotes collagen production by chondrocytes, leading to bone growth and formation. Additionally, it may provide copper for angiogenesis in tissues. The peptide is thought to improve the differentiation and proliferation of axons within neurons, block ferritin channels, and release oxidative iron after tissue injury, potentially blocking iron-catalyzed lipid peroxidation. Thus, copper-peptide-induced tissue repair is theorized to work for various tissues, including skin, hair follicles, stomach lining, intestinal lining, bone tissue, hooves, etc.

 

GHK-Cu Research Studies

Scientific work suggests that GHK-Cu peptide may affect various aspects, including infection control, wound healing, follicle growth restoration, anti-cancer cell proliferation, and neurological impact.

Wound Healing and Infection Control: Speculative findings propose that the peptide may cause better wound contraction, faster granular tissue development, and improved angiogenesis. Systemic exposure to the peptide might promote healing, and its introduction into the muscle could potentially help repair distant sites.

Anti-Inflammatory Response: Research suggests that GHK-Cu peptide might interact with TNF-alpha and pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6, in fibroblasts, leading to a significant reduction in inflammation. This may make the peptide suitable for systemic exposure in research on inflammatory skin cell conditions, such as psoriasis.

Follicle Growth Restoration: The peptide has been suggested to have efficacy comparable to other established research compounds in the restoration of follicle growth.

Cognitive Function: The peptide is speculated to promote cognitive function by increasing the migration of hematogenous cells into collagen tubes, producing nerve growth factors, increasing the expression of integrins, and enhancing the regeneration rate of myelinated nerve fibers. A gene expression study suggests that the peptide may induce changes in the expression of fundamental proteins, impacting various biochemical pathways in organs and tissues, including the nervous system.

Anti-Cancer: GHK-Cu has been suggested by researchers to be relevant in research studies of metastatic cancer. It is speculated that higher tissue copper levels may keep cells younger, and GHK-Cu may assist in mediating this effect.

Lungs: Research suggests that the peptide may protect the lungs from acute injury and fibrosis, mitigating damage due to reactive oxygen species (ROS) and inflammatory cytokines. Exposure to GHK-Cu peptide is theorized to reduce inflammatory cell infiltration and interstitial thickness in research models of pulmonary fibrosis, exhibiting potential in research areas of various lung diseases.

 

Disclaimer: The products mentioned are not intended for human or animal consumption. Research chemicals are intended solely for laboratory experimentation and/or in-vitro testing.  Bodily introduction of any sort is strictly prohibited by law.  All purchases are limited to licensed researchers and/or qualified professionals. All information shared in this article is for educational purposes only.

A peptide is a chemical compound consisting of two or more amino acids connected via peptide bonds. A peptide bond is a covalent bond. It is formed when two amino acids’ carboxyl group or C-terminus react with the amino group or N-terminus. Thus a condensation molecule of water is released during this reaction. The resulting bond is the CO-NH b.

The word peptide comes from the Greek word meaning “to digest.” Peptides are an important part of nature and biochemistry, and thousands of peptides occur naturally within the internal systems of organisms. With technological advances, new peptides are also being discovered and synthesized regularly in a laboratory settings.

 

The Formation Of Peptides

Peptides are formed both via natural processes within the organism and via synthetic processes inside the laboratory. Some peptides are manufactured organically, like ribosomal and nonribosomal peptides. In a laboratory, modern peptide synthesis processes may make a virtually infinite number of peptides using synthesis techniques like solid-phase or liquid-phase peptide synthesis. Solid-phase peptide synthesis is the standard process today, while liquid-phase peptide synthesis has some advantages. Vincent du Vigneaud synthesized the first Oxytocin, which is a polypeptide that was synthesized in 1953.

 

Classes

Peptides are divided into several classes. These classes vary based on how the peptides are produced. For example, the translation of mRNA produces ribosomal peptides. Ribosomal peptides appear to work as hormones and signaling molecules in organisms. These can include calcitonin peptides, vasoactive intestinal peptides, pancreatic peptides, and tachykinin peptide opioid peptides. Some organisms produce antibiotics like microcins, which are classified as ribosomal peptides. Ribosomal peptides mostly undergo the process of proteolysis, the breakdown of proteins into smaller peptides or amino acids to reach the mature form.

On the contrary, peptide-specific enzymes produce nonribosomal peptides. The ribosome does not produce them. Nonribosomal peptides are mainly cyclic rather than linear, although linear nonribosomal peptides may occur. Nonribosomal peptides may develop as extremely intricate cyclic structures. Nonribosomal peptides appear in plants, fungi, and single-celled organisms. Glutathione, suggested to be a significant part of antioxidant defense mechanisms in aerobic organisms, is the most common nonribosomal peptide.

Milk proteins may also form peptides in organisms. They may be produced by an enzymatic breakdown by digestive enzymes or by the proteinases formed by lactobacilli during the fermentation of milk. In addition, peptones are peptides from animal milk or meat that have been digested through proteolytic digestion. Peptones are used in the laboratory as nutrients for growing fungi and bacteria.

Moreover, fragments are commonly found as the products of enzymatic degradation in a laboratory with a control sample. However, peptide fragments can also occur naturally due to degradation by natural effects.

 

Terminologies to Know When Working with Peptides:

Amino Acids – Peptides consist of amino acids. An amino acid is any molecule that consists of both amine and carboxyl functional groups.

Cyclic Peptide – A peptide in which the amino acid sequence forms a ring structure instead of a straight chain. Examples of cyclic peptides are Melanotan-2 and Bremelanotide (PT-141).

Peptide Sequence – Is simply the order in which peptide bonds connect amino acid residues in the peptide.

Peptide Bond – A covalent bond formed between two amino acids when a carboxyl group of one amino acid reacts with the amino group of another amino-acid. This reaction is a condensation reaction, a reaction in which a molecule of water is released.

Peptide Mapping – Is a process that can be used to validate or discover the amino acid sequence of specific peptides or proteins.

Peptide Mimetics – Is a molecule that biologically mimics active ligands of hormones, enzyme substrates, cytokines, viruses, or other bio-molecules. Peptide mimetics can be a synthetically modified or natural peptide, or other molecules that perform the required function.

Peptide Fingerprint – It is a chromatographic pattern of the peptide. A peptide fingerprint is produced by partially hydrolyzing the peptide, which breaks up the peptide into fragments, and these are then undergone the 2-D mapping process.

Peptide Library – It consists of a large number of peptides that have a systematic combination of amino acids. Solid-phase peptide synthesis is the most frequent peptide synthesis technique that is used to prepare peptide libraries

 

Disclaimer: The products mentioned are not intended for human or animal consumption. Research chemicals are intended solely for laboratory experimentation and/or in-vitro testing.  Bodily introduction of any sort is strictly prohibited by law.  All purchases are limited to licensed researchers and/or qualified professionals. All information shared in this article is for educational purposes only.

IGF-1, also known as Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1 or Somatomedin 1, is naturally present in the blood. It is a polypeptide hormone with structural similarity to Insulin. Primarily synthesized in the liver, the synthesis of IGF-1 is managed by the pituitary secretion of Growth Hormone (GH). Various organs, including the brain, are speculated to synthesize IGF-1 locally.

The speculated primary function of IGF-1 is to stimulate growth, potentially causing hypertrophy, an increase in cell size, and hyperplasia, an increase in cell number in most tissues, including bone. The concentration of IGF-1 in serum is believed to increase during periods of developmental growth, reaching its peak upon reproductive maturation, and gradually decreasing.

Various speculative research studies suggest that decreasing levels of IGF-1 may play a role in negative effects associated with the cell aging process. This may include a decline in lean muscle mass and an increase in adipose (fat) tissue. One study split fully mature research models into two groups: one exposed to IGF-1 three times weekly for six months, while the other received no exposure. The impact on the group exposed to IGF-1 were pronounced, showing an 8.8% gain in lean muscle mass and a 14.4% decrease in adipose tissue. Additionally, this group was speculated to experience an average increase of 1.6% in lumbar vertebral bone density and a 7.1% rise in skin thickness. The control group experienced no changes in muscle mass, adiposity, bone density, or skin thickness. This and other studies like it suggest the vital role IGF-1 may play.

IGF-1 LR3 peptide is speculated to be 2-3 times more effective in generating these effects than unmodified IGF-1. IGF-1 LR3 peptide, a more potent form of IGF-1 that has been chemically changed, has been suggested to exhibit significant implications in the enhancement of these effects.

 

IGF-1 LR3 Peptide and Muscle Cell Proliferation

IGF-1 LR3 peptide is widely regarded among researchers as a potential activator of muscle growth. The potential action of IGF-1 LR3 peptide on muscular tissue are not fully understood, but researchers may suggest that it promotes new muscle cells and fibers while supporting the growth and retention of existing muscular tissue. The capacity of IGF-1 LR3 peptide to stimulate muscle cell proliferation, along with its powerful anabolic potential, could distinguish it from other muscle-building compounds.

Under significant muscular stress, the organism may respond by undergoing a process known as hypertrophy, an increase in the size of already existing muscle cells. Crucially, this process may only impact existing muscle cells, with no new muscle cells or fibers formed. However, studies suggest that research models exposed to IGF-1 LR3 peptide, also known as Long R3 IGF-1, may experience an increase in the size of existing muscle cells and the formation of new muscle cells (hyperplasia), along with the growth of new muscle fibers (mitogenesis). In the presence of IGF-1 LR3 peptide exposure, it is speculated that muscular growth may rise considerably, and newly generated muscle cells may increase in size and density.

 

Disclaimer: The products mentioned are not intended for human or animal consumption. Research chemicals are intended solely for laboratory experimentation and/or in-vitro testing.  Bodily introduction of any sort is strictly prohibited by law.  All purchases are limited to licensed researchers and/or qualified professionals. All information shared in this article is for educational purposes only.

BPC-157 is a short peptide derived from a full-length protein called body protection compound (BPC). Researchers suggest that BPC is a naturally occurring peptide that may promote healing when exposed experimentally in animal research models. The peptide is speculated to play a crucial role in the potential repair and healing of the intestines and other tissues upon injury or insult. The mode of action of the BCP-157 peptide may be linked to the growth hormone axis and functioning, according to some hypotheses.

 

BPC-157 Peptide and Healing

BPC-157 represents a short segment of a naturally occurring protein known as body protection compound (BPC). It may be found in various tissues, such as the liver and skin, though it was first isolated from the stomach fluid, also known as the gastric juice. Previous studies may have suggested the efficacy of both BPC-157 and the parent protein BPC in potentially promoting tissue healing. New research may be focused on exploring the molecular mechanisms for the same.

 

Fibroblast Outgrowth and Migration

In vitro assays have suggested that the peptide may help prolong fibroblasts’ survival by about 1.5x longer. The cells may also tend to exhibit higher activity. Fibroblasts are motile cells found in most connective tissues. When there is an injury to tissues, fibroblasts migrate to the site to initiate the process of repair. They may also divide and reproduce to increase the number of fibroblasts available for tissue repair. In vitro research suggests that BPC-157 peptide concentrations might directly influence fibroblast migration. The highest recommended concentration of the peptide may also correlate with the potentially highest levels of fibroblasts. Scientific data suggests that the peptide is not only a potential chemoattractant for fibroblasts but may also enhance cellular migration 2.5 times the normal rate of migration. The cells may also show enhanced division by three times.

 

Genetic Modification

Previous research suggested that the BPC-157 peptide may also regulate collagen functions of fibroblasts. Fibroblasts are speculated to be responsible for collagen deposition and maintenance. Recent findings suggest that the peptide may also bring about genetic modulation in the fibroblast cells, potentially helping in increased expression of the GH receptor gene in fibroblasts. Hence, BPC-157 may also be speculated to alter the functions of the DNA.

Fibroblasts are found in the intestine, especially in connective tissues. The exposure of the peptide to injured connective tissue may enhance the response to growth hormone by increasing the receptor density, as some studies may suggest. Hence, even though the GH levels appear to remain the same, there may be greater hormone uptake at the injury site, potentially expediting the rate of healing. Ongoing studies reveal potentially greater potential impacts of the peptide than are currently known.

 

BPC-157 Peptide Research

BPC-157 peptide has been observed to potentially promote healing in various types of injuries like inflammatory bowel disease, muscle, tendon wear, and tear. A 2014 research study on animals suggested that a fraction of the healing response may be due to the increased production of GH receptors in the injured tissues upon BPC-157 peptide exposure. Various growth factors may have been involved in the tissue healing process, as some research studies speculate. Each of the proteins may function depending on the extent of the injury and specific tissue that has endured the damage. GH may be crucial for repairing damage to connective tissues like skeletal muscles, bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. It may further promote the secretion of collagen, a protein that helps scaffold various connective tissues. BCP-157 peptide might be speculated to enhance the effects and recovery by recruiting GH to damaged tissues.

 

The Net Effect

BPC-157 peptide has been suggested by researchers to promote fibroblast migration, survival, division, and enhance the rate of their movement to the site of injury. Thus, the peptide might improve the rate of repair by several folds. This may be achieved through the stimulation of natural healing processes, potentially enhancing natural repair mechanisms.

 

Disclaimer: The products mentioned are not intended for human or animal consumption. Research chemicals are intended solely for laboratory experimentation and/or in-vitro testing.  Bodily introduction of any sort is strictly prohibited by law.  All purchases are limited to licensed researchers and/or qualified professionals. All information shared in this article is for educational purposes only.

Osteoporosis, which is characterized by an increase in bone fragility and vulnerability to fractures, is speculated to be one of the most prevalent systemic skeletal system diseases. The healing of fractures in research models of osteoporosis is delayed and compromised due to microarchitectural destruction in bone tissue. Recent studies in different animal research models have examined the impacts of three significant peptides, BPC-157, AOD 9604, and MOTS-c, in research models of osteoporosis.

 

BPC-157 and Osteoporosis

BPC-157 is a synthetic amino acid sequence of the naturally available Body Protection Complex (BPC) present in gastric juice. Researchers may suggest that BPC-157 may lead to improvement of healing in numerous types of wounds, acceleration in various forms of tissue healing, both internal and external, potential anti-inflammatory effects, among other impacts.

Intramuscular exposure to BPC-157 exhibited promising results compared to the percutaneous exposure of autologous bone marrow or autologous bone grafting (the effectiveness could also be seen after local exposure). In the light of the stomach’s significance for bone homeostasis, the potential relevance of BPC-157’s effect (local or intramuscular effectiveness, lack of unwanted effects) could be speculated as a basis for choice methods in the future management of healing impairment in animals and requires further investigation.

 

AOD-9604 and Osteoporosis

AOD-9604 is a peptide that consists of a fragment of growth hormone without apparent proliferative effects, which researchers may speculate has multiple effects on bone. The IGF-1 and direct cellular pathways are suggested to be activated by AOD-9704, which is approximately 8% of the growth hormone molecule. AOD-9604 is suggested not to exhibit any effect on the IGF-1 pathway, which may result in significant insulin resistance. This product has been suggested to be utilized with increasing success in the potential research of local pain like osteoarthritis and tendonitis.

South Korean researchers investigated the potential effects of AOD-9604 via intra-articular exposures with or without hyaluronic acid in a collagenase-induced knee osteoarthritis rabbit model. Each exposure was given for 4-7 weeks after the first intra-articular collagenase exposure. The degree of cartilage degeneration was then assessed using the morphological and histopathological findings. Eight weeks after the first collagenase exposure, the degree of lameness was also potentially observed. The intra-articular AOD9604 exposures using ultrasound guidance have been suggested to show enhanced cartilage regeneration. The combination of AOD9604 and HA exposures has been suggested to be more effective than AOD9604 or HA exposure alone in the collagenase-induced knee OA rabbit model.

 

What is MOTS-c?

Thirty-seven known genes, including 22 tRNAs, 2rRNAs, and 13 polypeptide subunits of the electron transport chain complexes, are encoded by mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Recent research studies suggest small open reading frames in the rRNA loci that may be transcribed and translated into short peptides called mitochondrial-derived peptides (MDPs), which may exhibit biological activity. MOTS-c is a mitochondrial-encoded peptide with 16-aa’s encoded within the 12S rRNA locus of mtDNA in cells.

MOTS-c may translocate into the nucleus in response to metabolic stress and regulation of adaptive nuclear gene expression. This may allow the peptide to promote resistance to metabolic stress by upregulating the mitochondrial genome. Upregulating these genes may encourage mitochondrial biogenesis. AMPK, if activated, may restore homeostasis by potentially initiating catabolic processes for ATP production in case of energy deficits. In addition, some research papers may suggest that MOTS-c potentially decreases insulin resistance and increases GLUT4 uptake in muscle.

 

Disclaimer: The products mentioned are not intended for human or animal consumption. Research chemicals are intended solely for laboratory experimentation and/or in-vitro testing.  Bodily introduction of any sort is strictly prohibited by law.  All purchases are limited to licensed researchers and/or qualified professionals. All information shared in this article is for educational purposes only.